organizational development

11. ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Definition:

Planned à effort

To improve = org effectiveness --- Org. capability

Through designed process - for problems solving

- for self renewal

Main Objectives:

Increase Level à trust

New ways à learning + coping

Create an environment where

Authority of assigned role à authority of knowledge

Increase level à responsibility

Increase level à communication

Solution for à problems

Increase level à satisfaction

Improve à climate of org

Influence:

1) à act of affecting

attitudes behaviour

2) à individual or group by individual or group

involves

regulating motivating

behavior people

e.g. If Y commands X then Y has influence over X among à

man g à an influence process of getting things tone

Means of Influence:

Emulation Some people à imitate & adopt

Role models + superiors à behaviour + attitude

It is indirect mean

Suggestion : Idea presentation

Adopting line of action

It is direct mean:

Persuasion: Involves à influence and influence one explain other to do or not to do

something

It is direct interaction:

Coercion: direct / indirect

(threat) compulsion à effect beahviour

It is forced and hard mean:

Techniques:

Structured focused

Programme

Includes improve

Job enlargement: org effect

Task are added task

Greater variety relationships

Of tasks components

Job enrichment:

Managerial response are added:

Challenging job:

Matrix Org:

Provides flexible struct

Inflow + outflow of impr

In dynamic org

Manage by objective

Integrating

Org goal + personal goal

Behaviour Modification:

Reward more effective

Needs of employer considered

Survey feedback:

Collection and analysis

Data à which improve and process of

(also diff components of organization)

à flexitime:

employees

decide working hrs

certain limit is set

à linking Pin Organization

Mission Goals & Objective:

1. Mission (Purpose)

basic function in society, in terms of the product & services it produces for its clients.

Mission

Not written written

Mission statement

Mission

Strategy Adopt where we see future

Mission Statement:

à Document

à No Format

Includes:

- Fro whom organization exists

- Nature of business

- Ways of competing

- Principles of business

Purpose:

Focus of strategy Create corporate culture

Guide for decision making

Mission Statement

Communicate the purpose

Of business to outsiders

2. Goals & objectives:

A) Organization exists à collective goals

B) Management ensures that:

Strong desires do not opposed to organizatin’s goals.

Definition Goal:

The intentions behind decisions or actions, the states of mind that drive individual or collectives of individuals called. Organizations to do what they do.

Goal

Operational Goals Non-Operational Goals

- Objectives - Not objective

- Aims - Open objective

S pecific

M easurable

A ttainable

R esult oriented

T ime-bounded

Criteria for making goals:

Features:

Vertically consistent

Goal congruence (horizontal consistency)

Consistency with time span

Objectives

Identification of benefactions

Ideological goals

System goals Format goals

Goals

Scared personal goals

3. Commercial Goals & Objectives:

Difference

Objective Mission

1. Formal & Written cultural

2. Time limit x

3. Quantitative measure x

Goal Structure:

Mission

Corporate à set

Operational Implementation

Individual

Goal

Corporate Individual

- Concerned with the firm Specific to individual units

commercial public

Objectives of Making Goals:

Resource

Market

Employee development

Innovations

Productivity

Objective

Primary Corporate Secondary Strategic

Objective

Long term short term

Conflict:

Ways to deal with conflict

a à Bargaining

b à Satisficing (equality)

c à Sequential attention

d à Priority setting

4. Stake Holder’s Goals & Objectives

social responsibilities General & environmental influences

Evolution of Strategies

Economic objective influence of stake holders

General Environmental Influences:

a. External influences.

b. Influence of the nature of business.

c. Influence of organization’s culture.

Stakeholder à People who have interest in organization

Social Responsibility:

(By – Ansoff)

Objective

Primary Secondary

(Economic) (Social or non-economic)

which

Modify Management

Behaviour

Due to interaction

Of stakeholder individual

objective

Stakeholders’ Objective:

a) For employees:

- minimum wage level

- job security

- good working condition

- job satisfaction

- medical

- pension

- training

b) Customers:

- quality product & reasonable price

- meeting customer needs

c) Suppliers:

- regular order’s

d) Shareholders:

- Appropriate return

5 Subverting Mission

(by Mintzberg)

An act to have such goals which make the mission appear secondary.

These goals are system goals.

System Goals

Survival Control

Growth Efficiency

They are interrelated

Difficult to subvert mission when:

1. Powerful persons or groups

2. Professional organization (hospital)

3. Strong Ideology (missionaries)

Mission Negated by:

Conglomerate Diversification:

6. Management by Objectives:

Approach for setting objectives, targets & plans.

It provide co-ordination between

- Short-term & long term plans

- Junior & senior management plans.

- Efforts of different department.

Successful Achievement of Goals:

- Focus of Managers

- Managers target

- Managers Contribution

- Managers performance

- Boss know how

Hierarchy of Objectives:

Strategic Plans

Tactical plans

Improvement Management

Performance

Unit / Departmental Plans

Individual Plans

UNIT OBJECTIVES:

Departments

Primary Targets Senior Manager Department

Approved

Secondary Target

Key Results:

1)

Unit Improvement Plan

Job Improvement Plan

Key Results & Performance

Key Result Analysis

2) Performance Standards

Quantitative Qualitative

Advantages of MBO:

- Better management

- Converting strategic plans to management action plan

- Co-ordination

- Commitment

- Communication

- Change is possible (Adaptability)

Disadvantages of MBO:

- Not as effective as strategic Plans

- Long term targets à No

- Inflexibility

- Time consuming

- Overstress

7. Achieving Work Objectives:

M B O

Performance management System

Procedures:

Chronological sequence of required actions for performing a certain task.

- Efficiency

- Discretion à (who has to do what – defined)

- Familiarity

- Standardization

- Continuity

- Inter-operational friction

Standardization:

Means of co-ordination

1. Prioritizing and Work Planning:

Working Planning:

Work methods & practices

Objectives

Work Planning a Base For:

1. Scheduling & allocating of routine tasks.

2. Handling high priority tasks & deadlines.

3. Adapting changes.

4. standards for Working

5. co-ordination.

Steps:

1. Establishing priorities.

2. Scheduling & timetabling tasks

3. establishing check & control

4. contingency pan for

unscheduled events.

Priorities:

Work is done on he basis of priorities at each level.

Directing Resources:

Resources are managed as:

1) Assesing winere it is usefully spent

2) Scheduling

3) Timetabling the job

4) Resourcing right time

ABC Analysis

Pareto Analysis:

Item

A: C:

very important Marginally important

B:

Fairly important

Timescale of Work Planning:

Time Scale

Long Term Short Term

Medium

Term

Year

Month

Week

Day

Deadlines:

Endo the longest span of time allotted to a task

Critical Path Analysis

Planning Technique on the Pyramid of Deadlines

positive psychology

Positive psychology
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Positive psychology is a recent branch of psychology that "studies the strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive".[1] Positive psychologists seek "to find and nurture genius and talent", and "to make normal life more fulfilling",[1] not simply to treat mental illness.[1]
Several humanistic psychologists—such as Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, and Erich Fromm—developed theories and practices that involved human happiness. Recently the theories of human flourishing developed by these humanistic psychologists have found empirical support from studies by positive psychologists. Positive psychology has also moved ahead in a number of new directions.
Current researchers in positive psychology include Sonja Lyubomirsky[2][3], Martin Seligman,[1] Ed Diener,[1] Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi,[1], C. R. Snyder,[1] Christopher Peterson,[1] Barbara Fredrickson,[1] Donald Clifton, Albert Bandura, Shelley Taylor, Charles S. Carver, Michael F. Scheier, and Jonathan Haidt.[4]
//
[edit] Background
Positive psychology began as a new area of psychology in 1998 when Martin Seligman, considered the father of the modern positive psychology movement,[5] chose it as the theme for his term as president of the American Psychological Association,[6] though the term originates with Maslow, in his 1954 book Motivation and Personality.[7] Seligman pointed out that for the half century clinical psychology "has been consumed by a single topic only - mental illness",[8] echoing Maslow’s comments.[9] He urged psychologists to continue the earlier missions of psychology of nurturing talent and improving normal life.[1]
The first positive psychology summit took place in 1999. The First International Conference on Positive Psychology took place in 2002.[1] In June 2009, the First World Congress on Positive Psychology took place.[10]
[edit] Historical roots
Positive psychology finds its roots in the humanistic psychology of the 20th century, which focused heavily on happiness and fulfillment. Earlier influences on positive psychology came primarily from philosophical and religious sources, as scientific psychology did not take its modern form until the late 19th century. (See History of psychology)
Judaism promotes a Divine command theory of happiness: happiness and rewards follow from following the commands of the divine.[1]
The ancient Greeks had many schools of thought. Socrates advocated self-knowledge as the path to happiness. Plato's allegory of the cave influenced western thinkers who believe that happiness is found by finding deeper meaning. Aristotle believed that happiness, or eudaimonia is constituted by rational activity in accordance with virtue over a complete life. The Epicureans believed in reaching happiness through the enjoyment of simple pleasures. The Stoics believed they could remain happy by being objective and reasonable.[1]
Christianity continued to follow the Divine command theory of happiness. In the Middle Ages, Christianity taught that true happiness would not be found until the afterlife. The seven deadly sins are about earthly self-indulgence and narcissism. On the other hand, the Four Cardinal Virtues and Three Theological Virtues were supposed to keep one from sin.[1]
During the Renaissance and Age of Enlightenment, individualism came to be valued. Simultaneously, creative individuals gained prestige, as they were now considered to be artists, not just craftsmen. Utilitarian philosophers such as John Stuart Mill believed that moral actions are those actions that maximize happiness for the most number of people. Thus, an empirical science of happiness should be used to determine which actions are moral. Thomas Jefferson and other proponents of democracy believed that "Life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness" are inalienable rights, and that it justifies the overthrow of the government.[1]
The Romantics valued individual emotional expression and sought their emotional "true selves," which were unhindered by social norms. At the same time, love and intimacy became the main motivations for people to get married.[1]
[edit] Research

Please help improve this article by expanding it. Further information might be found on the talk page. (January 2007)
[edit] General overview
Some researchers[11] in this field posit that positive psychology can be delineated into three overlapping areas of research:
Research into the Pleasant Life, or the "life of enjoyment", examines how people optimally experience, forecast, and savor the positive feelings and emotions that are part of normal and healthy living (e.g. relationships, hobbies, interests, entertainment, etc.).
The study of the Good Life, or the "life of engagement", investigates the beneficial affects of immersion, absorption, and flow that individuals feel when optimally engaged with their primary activities. These states are experienced when there is a positive match between a person's strength and the task they are doing, i.e. when they feel confident that they can accomplish the tasks they face.
Inquiry into the Meaningful Life, or "life of affiliation", questions how individuals derive a positive sense of well-being, belonging, meaning, and purpose from being part of and contributing back to something larger and more permanent than themselves (e.g. nature, social groups, organizations, movements, traditions, belief systems).
[edit] The undoing effect
In an article entitled "The undoing effect of positive emotions," Barbara Fredrickson et al. hypothesize that positive emotions undo the cardiovascular effects of negative emotions. When people experience stress, they show increased heart rate, higher blood sugar, immune suppression, and other adaptations optimized for immediate action. If individuals do not regulate these changes once the stress is past, they can lead to illness, coronary heart disease, and heightened mortality. Both lab research and survey research indicate that positive emotions help people who were previously under stress relax back to their physiological baseline.[12]
[edit] Elevation
After several years of researching disgust, University of Virginia professor Jonathan Haidt and others studied its opposite, and the term "elevation" was coined. Elevation is a moral emotion and is pleasant. It involves a desire to act morally and do "good"; as an emotion it has a basis in biology, and can sometimes be characterized by a feeling of expansion in the chest or a tingling feeling on the skin.
[edit] Broaden-and-build
The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions suggests that positive emotions (e.g. happiness, interest, anticipation)[13] broaden one's awareness and encourage novel, varied, and exploratory thoughts and actions. Over time, this broadened behavioral repertoire builds skills and resources. For example, curiosity about a landscape becomes valuable navigational knowledge; pleasant interactions with a stranger become a supportive friendship; aimless physical play becomes exercise and physical excellence.
This is in contrast to negative emotions, which prompt narrow survival-oriented behaviors. For example, the negative emotion of anxiety leads to the specific fight-or-flight response for immediate survival.[13]
[edit] Positive experiences
[edit] Mindfulness
Mindfulness, defined as actively searching for novelty, is also characterized as non-judging, non-striving, accepting, patient, trusting, open, letting go, gentle, generous, empathetic, grateful, and kind. Its benefits include reduction of stress, anxiety, depression, and chronic pain.[14]
[edit] Flow
Flow, or a state of absorption in one's work, is characterized by intense concentration, loss of self-awareness, a feeling of control, and a sense that "time is flying." Flow is an intrinsically rewarding experience, and it can also help one achieve a goal (e.g. winning a game) or improve skills (e.g. becoming a better chess player).[14]
[edit] Spirituality
Spirituality has been defined as the search for "the sacred," where "the sacred" is broadly defined as that which is set apart from the ordinary and worthy of veneration. Spirituality can be sought not only through traditional organized religions, but also through movements such as the feminist theology and ecological spirituality. Spirituality is associated with mental health, managing substance abuse, marital functioning, parenting, and coping. It has been suggested that spirituality also leads to finding purpose and meaning in life.[14]
[edit] Positive futures
[edit] Self-efficacy
Self-efficacy is one's belief in one's ability to accomplish a task by one's own efforts. Low self-efficacy is associated with depression; high self-efficacy can help one overcome abuse, overcome eating disorders, and maintain a healthy lifestyle. High self-efficacy also improves the immune system, aids in stress management, and decreases pain.[15]
[edit] Learned optimism
Learned optimism is the habit of attributing one's failures to causes that are external (not personal), variable (not permanent), and specific (limited to a specific situation). For example, an optimistic person attributes his/her failures to external causes (the environment or other people), to variable causes which are not likely to happen again, and to specific causes that will not affect his/her success in other endeavors.
This explanatory style is associated with better performances (academic, athletic, or work productivity), greater satisfaction in interpersonal relationships, better coping, less vulnerability to depression, and better physical health.[15]
[edit] Hope
Hope is a learned style of goal-directed thinking is which the person utilizes both pathways thinking (the perceived capacity to find routes to desired goals) and agency thinking (the requisite motivations to use those routes)([15]
[edit] Other findings
"A systematic study of 22 people who won major lotteries found that they reverted to their baseline level of happiness over time, winding up no happier than 22 matched controls" (p. 48[11])
"Within a few years, paraplegics wind up only slightly less happy on average than individuals who are not paralyzed" (p. 48[11])
"[83 percent] of Americans report positive life satisfaction" (p. 50[11])
"In wealthier nations ... increases in wealth have negligible effects on personal happiness" (p. 54[11])
"Unlike money, which has at most a small effect, marriage is robustly related to happiness.... In my opinion, the jury is still out on what causes the proven fact that married people are happier than unmarried people." (pp. 55-56[11]) However other studies found no difference in happiness between married and unmarried people. [1]
[edit] Application
The development of the Character Strengths and Virtues (CSV) handbook represents the first attempt on the part of the research community to identify and classify the positive psychological traits of human beings. Much like the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) of general psychology, the CSV provides a theoretical framework to assist in developing practical applications for positive psychology. This manual identifies six classes of virtue (i.e., "core virtues"), made up of twenty-four measurable character strengths.[16]
The introduction of CSV suggests that these six virtues are considered good by the vast majority of cultures and throughout history and that these traits lead to increased happiness when practiced. Notwithstanding numerous cautions and caveats, this suggestion of universality hints that in addition to trying to broaden the scope of psychological research to include mental wellness, the leaders of the positive psychology movement are challenging moral relativism and suggesting that we are "evolutionarily predisposed" toward certain virtues, that virtue has a biological basis.[17]
The organization of these virtues and strengths is as follows:
Wisdom and Knowledge: creativity, curiosity, open-mindedness, love of learning, perspective, innovation
Courage: bravery, persistence, integrity, vitality
Humanity: love, kindness, social intelligence
Justice: citizenship, fairness, leadership
Temperance: forgiveness and mercy, humility, prudence, self control
Transcendence: appreciation of beauty and excellence, gratitude, hope, humor, spirituality
Practical applications of positive psychology include helping individuals and organizations identify their strengths and use them to increase and sustain their respective levels of well-being. Therapists, counselors, coaches, and various other psychological professionals can use the new methods and techniques to build and broaden the lives of individuals who are not necessarily suffering from mental illness or disorder.
How the positive psychology virtues and strengths are portrayed in movies, and how individuals can use movie viewings for self-improvement or to help others, are illustrated in a more recent book by Ryan Niemiec from the VIA Institute on Character [18]and Danny Wedding from the Missouri Institute of Mental Health [19] entitled Positive Psychology at the Movies: Using Films to Build Virtues and Character Strengths.[20]
Positive psychology is also currently being researched widely in the UK, such as by the Centre for Applied Positive Psychology[21]. It is home to researchers such as Prof. Alex Linley of the University of Leicester, who is currently researching topics including post-traumatic growth, gratitude, and positive therapies. Collaborators include institutions such as the Universities of Manchester and Nottingham.